Metrics of Mobility: Assessing the Impact of COVID-19 on Travel Behavior

The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted typical travel behavior worldwide. In the United States (U.S.), government entities took action to limit its spread through public health messaging to encourage reduced mobility and thus reduce the spread of the virus. Within statewide responses to COVID-19, however, there were different responses locally. Likely some of these variations were a result of individual attitudes toward the government and health messaging, but there is also likely a portion of the effects that were because of the character of the communities. In this research, we summarize county-level characteristics that are known to affect travel behavior for 404 counties in the U.S., and we investigate correlates of mobility between April and September (2020). We do this through application of three metrics that are derived via changepoint analysis—initial post-disruption mobility index, changepoint on restoration of a ‘‘new normal,'' and recovered mobility index. We find that variables for employment sectors are significantly correlated and had large effects on mobility during the pandemic. The state dummy variables are significant, suggesting that counties within the same state behaved more similarly to one another than to counties in different states. Our findings indicate that few travel characteristics that typically correlate with travel behavior are related to pandemic mobility, and that the number of COVID-19 cases may not be correlated with mobility outcomes. © National Academy of Sciences: Transportation Research Board 2021.

Impacts of COVID-19 on Future Preferences Toward Telework

This paper presents a study in capturing the impacts of the mandatory pandemic-induced telework practice on workers' perceptions of the benefits, challenges, and difficulties associated with telecommuting and how those might influence their preference for telework in the future. Data was collected through an online survey conducted in South Florida in May 2020. Survey data showed that telework indices (either measured through actual behavior or stated preference) before, during, and after the pandemic were heterogeneous across socio-economic, demographic, and attitudinal segments. Before the outbreak, males, full-time students, those with PhD degrees, and high-income people showed higher percentages of involvement in jobs with a telework option. They also had higher pro-technology, pro-online education, workaholic, and pro-telework attitudes. During the pandemic, professional/managerial/technical jobs as well as jobs with lower physical-proximity measures showed the highest telework frequency. In view of future telework preferences, our analysis showed that those who were more pro-telework, pro-technology, and showed less dislike of telework dislike preferred higher telework frequency. A structural equation model was developed to assess the impacts of different predictors on telework behavior before the pandemic and preferences after the pandemic. While telework frequency before the pandemic was highly affected by the pro-telework attitude, the after-pandemic preferences were influenced by several other attitudes such as dislike telework, enjoy interaction, workaholic, as well as productivity factors. This might confirm the assumption that the mandatory practice through the pandemic has provided employees more experiences with work-from-home arrangements, which could reshape decisions and expectations around telework adoption in the future. © National Academy of Sciences: Transportation Research Board 2021.

Exploring Public Perception Toward Travel and COVID-19 Preventive Measures: Insights From the Early Stages of Lockdown in India.

The paper reports evidence related to peoples' perceptions and attitude during the early stages of COVID-19 related lockdown in India in four major aspects: strategies and preventive measures, long-distance travel, essential services, and post-lockdown travel. A five-stage survey instrument was designed and circulated through various online modes to make it convenient to the respondents and also to achieve a greater geographical coverage within a short period of time. The survey responses were analyzed using statistical tools and the results are translated into potential policy recommendations which may be useful to implement effective interventions during future pandemics of similar nature. The findings highlight a high rate of awareness among the people about the COVID-19, lack of supply of protective equipment such as masks, gloves, and personal protective equipment kits during the early stage of lockdown in India. However, several heterogeneities were also observed across a few socio-economic groups which emphasize the need for targeted campaigns in a diverse country such as India. The findings also suggest the need for arranging safe and hygienic long-distance trips for a section of the society when such lockdown measures are extended for long periods. The observations related to mode choice preferences during the post-lockdown recovery period indicate a potential shift of public transport patronage to the personal modes.

Effects of COVID-19 on Telework and Commuting Behavior: Evidence from 3 Years of Panel Data.

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced employers and employees to re-evaluate their attitudes toward telecommuting. This induced a change in the sheer number of people who have started to work from home (WFH). While previous studies highlight differences between telecommuters based on their level of telecommuting experience, these effects have not been studied in detail. This may limit the evaluation of implications for post-pandemic times and the transferability of models and predictions based on data collected during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study expands on previous findings by comparing the characteristics and behavior of those who have started to telecommute during the pandemic and those who had already telecommuted before. Furthermore, this study addresses the uncertainty that exists about whether the findings of studies conducted before the pandemic-for example about sociodemographic characteristics of telecommuters-still hold true, or if the pandemic induced a shift in telecommuters' profiles. Telecommuters show differences when considering their previous experience in WFH. The results of this study suggest that the transition induced by the pandemic was more drastic for new telecommuters compared with experienced telecommuters. The COVID-19 pandemic had an effect on how household configurations are considered in the choice to WFH. With decreased access to child care resulting from school closings, people with children in the household were more likely to choose to telecommute during the pandemic. Also, while people living alone are generally less likely to choose to WFH, this effect was reduced as a result of the pandemic.

Longitudinal Analysis of COVID-19 Impacts on Mobility: An Early Snapshot of the Emerging Changes in Travel Behavior.

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a huge disruption worldwide with direct and indirect effects on travel behavior. In response to extensive community spread and potential risk of infection, during the early stage of the pandemic many state and local governments implemented non-pharmaceutical interventions that restricted non-essential travel for residents. This study evaluates the impacts of the pandemic on mobility by analyzing micro panel data (N = 1,274) collected in the United States via online surveys in two periods, before and during the early phase of the pandemic. The panel makes it possible to observe initial trends in travel behavior change, adoption of online shopping, active travel, and use of shared mobility services. This analysis intends to document a high-level overview of the initial impacts to spur future research to dive deeper into these topics. With the analysis of the panel data, substantial shifts are found from physical commutes to teleworking, more adoption of e-shopping and home delivery services, more frequent trips by walking and biking for leisure purposes, and changes in ridehailing use with substantial variations across socioeconomic groups. The social and environmental implications of these findings are discussed and suggestions for effective policy and directions for future research are made in the conclusion.

COVID-19: Modeling Out-of-Home and In-Home Activity Participation during the Pandemic.

Understanding the interaction between in-home and out-of-home activity participation decisions is important, particularly at a time when opportunities for out-of-home activities such as shopping, entertainment, and so forth are limited because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The travel restrictions imposed as a result of the pandemic have had a massive impact on out-of-home activities and have changed in-home activities as well. This study investigates in-home and out-of-home activity participation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data comes from the COVID-19 Survey for assessing Travel impact (COST), conducted from March to May in 2020. This study uses data for the Okanagan region of British Columbia, Canada to develop the following two models: a random parameter multinomial logit (RPMNL) model for out-of-home activity participation and a hazard-based random parameter duration (HRPD) model for in-home activity participation. The model results suggest that significant interactions exist between out-of-home and in-home activities. For example, a higher frequency of out-of-home work-related travel is more likely to result in a shorter duration of in-home work activities. Similarly, a longer duration of in-home leisure activities might yield a lower likelihood for recreational travel. Health care workers are more likely to engage in work-related travel and less likely to participate in personal and household maintenance activities at home. The model confirms heterogeneity among the individuals. For instance, a shorter duration of in-home online shopping yields a higher probability for participation in out-of-home shopping activity. This variable shows significant heterogeneity with a large standard deviation, which reveals that sizable variation exists for this variable.

Probit-Based Discrete-Continuous Choice Model to Explore the Relationship Between Car Ownership and Commuters' Non-Work Activity Durations in Xiaoshan District of Hangzhou, China

In China, a developing country, the car ownership level is much lower than that in developed countries, but transportation policies have been implemented to discourage car ownership and mitigate traffic congestion. However, car ownership (considered as car availability in this paper, meaning that an individual has access to a household private car) may influence travelers' well-being. To highlight the interrelation between car ownership and travelers' well-being, this paper develops a probit-based discrete-continuous model to analyze the relationship between car ownership and the duration of commuters' three major non-work outdoor activities (Act1: shopping and dining;Act2: leisure and entertainment;and Act3: visiting relatives or friends) in Xiaoshan District, Hangzhou, China. Empirical results indicate strong effects of individual and household socio-demographics, built environment attributes, and work-related characteristics on the car ownership decision and the duration of three non-work activities. The analysis shows positive correlations in unobserved factors between the car ownership decision and the duration of Acts1-3, indicating a mutually promotive relationship. Similarly, negative correlations among the duration of Acts1-3 show that non-work activities' duration is mutually substitutive. These findings will help to better understand commuters' car ownership decisions and non-work outdoor activity behavior restricted by fixed work schedules in developing countries, which can, in turn, better evaluate the impact of transportation policies (such as car ownership restriction) on travel demand as well as well-being, and provide decision support for the formulation of transportation policies.

Campus travel health services

Travel and students are inextricably linked. The college years are a time when students want to explore the unfamiliar and learn more about the outside world. The benefits of travel are enormous and something any campus would want to encourage. At the same time, however, colleges have a responsibility to protect the health and safety of students as well as the broader community from any negative consequences of travel. It can be quite challenging to develop travel health programs as various models exist and planning requires addressing issues such as staffing levels and training, budget, coordination with various stakeholders, and community resources. Providing appropriate pre- and post-travel care mandates a comprehensive risk analysis and evidenced-based risk mitigation strategies performed by trained travel health staff. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021.

Metrics of Mobility: Assessing the Impact of COVID-19 on Travel Behavior

The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted typical travel behavior worldwide. In the United States (U.S.), government entities took action to limit its spread through public health messaging to encourage reduced mobility and thus reduce the spread of the virus. Within statewide responses to COVID-19, however, there were different responses locally. Likely some of these variations were a result of individual attitudes toward the government and health messaging, but there is also likely a portion of the effects that were because of the character of the communities. In this research, we summarize county-level characteristics that are known to affect travel behavior for 404 counties in the U.S., and we investigate correlates of mobility between April and September (2020). We do this through application of three metrics that are derived via changepoint analysis-initial post-disruption mobility index, changepoint on restoration of a "new normal," and recovered mobility index. We find that variables for employment sectors are significantly correlated and had large effects on mobility during the pandemic. The state dummy variables are significant, suggesting that counties within the same state behaved more similarly to one another than to counties in different states. Our findings indicate that few travel characteristics that typically correlate with travel behavior are related to pandemic mobility, and that the number of COVID-19 cases may not be correlated with mobility outcomes.

The choice between business travel and video conferencing after COVID-19 - Insights from a choice experiment among frequent travelers.

COVID-19 has accelerated the substitution of videoconferencing for business travel. However, little research exists about the decision-making behavior of business travelers considering virtual alternatives. We fill this gap by reconceptualizing the decision-making process and investigating the fundamental choice between face-to-face (FtF) and virtual communication (VC) using an adaptive choice-based conjoint analysis. We argue that the process of decision making of business travelers is distinct to that of leisure travelers, as the fundamental decision between FtF and VC occurs prior to subsequent travel decisions. We show that the purpose of the meeting, the character of the message, and the location of the meeting are the decision attributes of greatest importance. Using a novel methodology we present a holistic decision model that increases the theoretical understanding of business traveler decision-making and provide practitioners with comprehensive insights relevant to travel policy development, and executives in the business travel market with guidance with management decisions.

Mobility support for disadvantaged and disabled travelers during pandemic or similar situations.

The COVID-19 lockdown has reduced public transportation service to the disadvantaged and disabled people who urgently need adequate mobility to obtain essential suppliers. This paper aims to improve the life quality of people with disabilities and elderly people by addressing social exclusion, accessibility, and mobility issues. Demand responsive transport services are frequently offered in the context of door-to-door transportation of the elderly and persons with disabilities. We study and compare two frameworks. We apply both Sample average approximation (SAA) and Rolling Horizon (RH) to optimize a car sharing system for the total cost, including initiation cost and operation cost after fleet size is determined. The model is implemented with given geographic conditions and other local information to be tailored for specific applications for local communities. Given that no historical data is available, random sample data is generated to simulate expected demands. We consider three types of probability distributions for daily demand data, and the results generated using three different distributions are being examined and compared. The research shows that the demand data following a normal distribution results in the minimum total cost. Additionally, we study the impact of several factors on total cost, including demand fulfillment rates and operation hours. Our results suggest that the impact of fulfillment rate on fleet size is exponential after a threshold under all three types of daily demand data, and extended operation hours can significantly reduce the total cost. Finally, the paper provides applicable frameworks for city planners, NPOs, and policymakers to better allocate limited resources to implement the carsharing system when little to no historical travel information is available for low-density population areas. It is anticipated that the outcome from this research would benefit disadvantaged and disabled travelers during COVID-19 or similar difficult situations in the future.

Duty of care for business travel: how do employers assess and manage business travel risk?

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to explore the risk factors that employers consider when assessing an employee’s business travel (BT) assignment and the risk treatment, crisis response and recovery strategies they use to discharge their BT duty of care. Design/methodology/approach: An exploratory approach is taken with in-depth interviews of 21 executives, travel managers and insurance brokers involved with the management of BT in four international hotel groups. In all, 12 follow-up interviews were conducted to assess the possible COVID-19 impact on BT risk management processes. Findings: Employers assess BT assignments considering the travel’s characteristics, including the destination’s risk profile against seven types of risks (health, political, transport, natural, crime, technology and kidnap), length of stay, travel mode and activities undertaken in the destination as well as the traveler’s profile which includes diversity and travel experience. Accordingly, they develop a range of duty of care strategies for BT risk treatment, crisis response and recovery. Practical implications: BT practitioners can use the proposed framework to develop risk assessment methodologies based on more accurate destination and traveler profiles and pursue targeted risk treatment strategies and insurance policies. The proposed duty of care approach can be used as a blueprint for organizations to design and manage BT policies. Originality/value: BT risk is an under-researched area. The extant research looks predominantly at travel risks and their assessment taking the traveler’s perspective. This study looks at business travel risk and explores it from an employer’s risk management perspective offering a BT risk assessment framework and a BT duty of care plan. © 2022, Emerald Publishing Limited.

Sensing the Impact of COVID-19 Restrictions from Online Reviews: The Cases of London and Paris Unveiled Through Text Mining

This study aims to understand how the COVID-19 pandemic affected the hotel sector and to identify the current traveler demands. The traveler’s reviews were analyzed based on sentiment analysis and a guest satisfaction model was also proposed, demonstrating a data mining approach within tourism and hospitality research. Given its popularity, TripAdvisor was the chosen platform for collection of hotel reviews in London and Paris. Text data were extracted from reviews made in two time periods, before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The sentiment and specific aspects highlighted by travelers were compared between each period. © 2022, The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

Solo Female Travelers as a New Trend in Tourism Destinations

Currently, several new trends are emerging in the tourism demand. One of them is an independent travel, which is becoming more and more attractive among women. Women are increasingly emancipated, longing for rest, new discoveries and adventures. The subject of the research is solo female travelers, whose independent traveling represents a new trend in tourism. The paper contains an analysis of the requirements and preferences of women in terms of independent traveling, which is a basis for product creation for this segment. The study of demand represents a starting point for the creation of desired products, which can stimulate an increase in the independent participation of women in tourism in Slovakia. Making the offer of products in Slovakia more attractive can thus reduce the tendency to prefer visiting destinations abroad and help to support the tourism after Coronavirus crisis. The expected benefit of the paper is an increase in awareness of the segment and its requirements and needs when traveling in Slovakia and abroad, which may have a positive impact on participation in domestic and inbound tourism in Slovakia. © 2021, The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG.

Genomic epidemiology reveals the reduction of the introduction and spread of SARS-CoV-2 after implementing control strategies in Republic of Korea, 2020.

Genomic epidemiology is a core component in investigating the spread of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). In this study, the efficacy of control strategies in South Korea was evaluated using genomic epidemiology based on viral genome sequences of 2,065 SARS-CoV-2 cases identified in South Korea from January 2020 to December 2020. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the majority of viruses introduced from inbound travelers did not further spread throughout South Korea; however, four distinct subgroups (KR.1-4, belonging to B.1.497, B.1, K.1 and B.41) of viruses caused local epidemics. After the introduction of enhanced social distancing, the viral population size and daily case numbers decreased, and KR.2-4 subgroups were extinguished from South Korea. Nevertheless, there was a subsequent increase in KR.1 subgroups after the downgrading of social distancing level. These results indicate that the international traveler quarantine system implemented in South Korea along with social distancing measures efficiently reduced the introduction and spread of SARS-CoV-2, but it was not completely controlled. An improvement of control strategies will be required to better control SARS-CoV-2, its variants, and future pandemic viruses.

Isolation and characterization of SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant from UAE travelers.

BACKGROUND: The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants in places where the virus is uncontained poses a global threat from the perspective of public health and vaccine efficacy. Travel has been important factor for the easy spread of SARS-CoV-2 variants worldwide. India has also observed the importation of SARS-CoV-2 variants through international travelers. METHODS: In this study, we have collected the oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal swab specimens from 58 individuals with travel history from United Arab Emirates (UAE), East, West and South Africa, Qatar, Ukraine and Saudi Arabia arrived in India during February-March 2021. The clinical specimens were initially screened for SARS-CoV-2 using Real time RT-PCR. All the specimens were inoculated on to Vero CCL-81 cells for virus isolation. The viral isolates were further sequenced using Next-Generation Sequencing. RESULTS: All 58 cases were tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 using Real time RT-PCR. Four specimens showed progressive infectivity with fusion of the infected cells with neighboring cells leading to large mass of cells. Replication competent virus was confirmed from culture supernatant of the passage 2 using Real time RT-PCR. Two plaque purified SARS-CoV-2 isolates demonstrated high viral RNA load of 3.8-7.5 × 1011 and 1.1-1.6 × 1011 at passage 4 and 5 respectively. Nucleotide variations along with amino acid changes were also observed among these two isolates at passage 2-5. All four cases were male with no symptoms and co-morbidity. The sequence analysis has shown two different clusters, first cluster with nucleotide deletions in the ORF1ab and the spike, while second cluster with deletions in spike region. The viral isolates demonstrated 99.88-99.96% nucleotide identity with the representative sequences of Beta variant (B.1.351). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest easier transmission of SARS-CoV-2 variants with human mobility through international travel. The isolated Beta variant would be useful to determine the protective efficacy of the currently available and upcoming COVID-19 vaccines in India.

Travel decision determinants during and after COVID-19: The role of tourist trust, travel constraints, and attitudinal factors.

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced tourism practitioners to create efficient strategies to attract travelers. Using three theoretical frameworks, such as tourist trust (political, destination, and interactional trust), travel constraint (intrapersonal, interpersonal, and "social distancing" structural constraint), and extended theory of planned behavior (travel attitude, perceived behavioral control, subjective norm, perceived health risk, past travel experience), we develop a comprehensive framework to explain the impact of travel promoting, restricting, and attitudinal factors on travel decision during and after the pandemic. Data was obtained through an extensive survey conducted on 1451 Korean travelers and was analyzed using probabilistic choice models and count models. The results show the specific factors that determine travel decisions during the pandemic (whether to travel and frequency) and travel intention after the pandemic. This study provides important theoretical and practical insights into how to develop successful COVID-19 recovery strategies in the tourism industry.

Diagnosis of Dengue in a returning traveler from Pakistan suspected of COVID-19, California, USA.

Dengue and COVID-19 cocirculation presents a diagnostic conundrum for physicians evaluating patients with acute febrile illnesses, both in endemic regions and among returning travelers. We present a case of a returning traveler from Pakistan who, following repeated negative SARS-CoV-2 tests, was found to have a Dengue virus serotype 2 infection.

Pulmonary histoplasmosis diagnosed in a Japanese woman after traveling to central and South America: A case report.

Histoplasmosis is a fungal infection caused by Histoplasma capsulatum, and Japan is considered a non-endemic area for histoplasmosis. Most patients diagnosed with histoplasmosis in the past usually have exposure to caves and bat guano with travel history to endemic areas. Therefore, travel history and risk activities should be comprehensively assessed when suspecting histoplasmosis because this important information may be overlooked. Although few, possibilities of indigenous cases have also been suggested. Moreover, it is assumed that the number of travelers and endemic mycoses has decreased with the recent coronavirus disease 2019 epidemic. However, clinicians should carefully consider the differential diagnosis of histoplasmosis for travelers traveling to endemic areas. In this case report, we describe an immunocompetent Japanese woman who developed histoplasmosis due to a history of travel to an endemic country. Our case report suggests that clinicians should not exclude histoplasmosis from the differential diagnosis even in the absence of risk features such as activities or immunodeficiencies during travel.